[mlir][python] Capture error diagnostics in exceptions

This updates most (all?) error-diagnostic-emitting python APIs to
capture error diagnostics and include them in the raised exception's
message:
```
>>> Operation.parse('"arith.addi"() : () -> ()'))
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
mlir._mlir_libs.MLIRError: Unable to parse operation assembly:
error: "-":1:1: 'arith.addi' op requires one result
 note: "-":1:1: see current operation: "arith.addi"() : () -> ()
```

The diagnostic information is available on the exception for users who
may want to customize the error message:
```
>>> try:
...   Operation.parse('"arith.addi"() : () -> ()')
... except MLIRError as e:
...   print(e.message)
...   print(e.error_diagnostics)
...   print(e.error_diagnostics[0].message)
...
Unable to parse operation assembly
[<mlir._mlir_libs._mlir.ir.DiagnosticInfo object at 0x7fed32bd6b70>]
'arith.addi' op requires one result
```

Error diagnostics captured in exceptions aren't propagated to diagnostic
handlers, to avoid double-reporting of errors. The context-level
`emit_error_diagnostics` option can be used to revert to the old
behaviour, causing error diagnostics to be reported to handlers instead
of as part of exceptions.

API changes:
- `Operation.verify` now raises an exception on verification failure,
  instead of returning `false`
- The exception raised by the following methods has been changed to
  `MLIRError`:
  - `PassManager.run`
  - `{Module,Operation,Type,Attribute}.parse`
  - `{RankedTensorType,UnrankedTensorType}.get`
  - `{MemRefType,UnrankedMemRefType}.get`
  - `VectorType.get`
  - `FloatAttr.get`

closes #60595

depends on D144804, D143830

Reviewed By: stellaraccident

Differential Revision: https://reviews.llvm.org/D143869