[libc++] Remove race condition in std::async

Summary:
The state associated to the future was set in one thread (with synchronization)
but read in another thread without synchronization, which led to a data race.

https://bugs.llvm.org/show_bug.cgi?id=38181
rdar://problem/42548261

Reviewers: mclow.lists, EricWF

Subscribers: christof, dexonsmith, cfe-commits

Differential Revision: https://reviews.llvm.org/D51170

llvm-svn: 340608