Use ForEachExternalModule in ParseTypeFromClangModule (NFC)

I wanted to further simplify ParseTypeFromClangModule by replacing the
hand-rolled loop with ForEachExternalModule, and then realized that
ForEachExternalModule also had the problem of visiting the same leaf
node an exponential number of times in the worst-case. This adds a set
of searched_symbol_files set to the function as well as the ability to
early-exit from it.

Differential Revision: https://reviews.llvm.org/D70215