[mlir][sparse] Improving error detection/messages for `get{RankedTensor,MemRef}Type` wrappers

This helps catch some otherwise hard to track down segfaults. N.B., even though `getSparseTensorType` is not touched in this patch, it also gains the new error checking (via `getRankedTensorType`).

Depends On D149805

Reviewed By: aartbik

Differential Revision: https://reviews.llvm.org/D149806