[libc++] [test] Add ranges_robust_against_copying_*.pass.cpp

    This tests the same QoI issue as the existing STL Classic test,
    but for the Ranges algorithms. Also, do the same thing for all
    the algorithms that take projections.

I found a few missing algorithms and added them to the existing test, too. `std::find_first_of` currently fails; I should look at why that is (and in particular, what is it doing weird that //makes// it inconsistent with the entire rest of libc++?).

Reviewed By: ldionne, #libc

Spies: libcxx-commits

Differential Revision: https://reviews.llvm.org/D121265