[libc][math] Update range reduction step for log10f and reduce its latency.

Simplify the range reduction steps by choosing the reduction constants
carefully so that the reduced arguments v = r*m_x - 1 and v^2 are exact in double
precision, even without FMA instructions, and -2^-8 <= v < 2^-7.  This allows the
polynomial evaluations to be parallelized more efficiently.

Reviewed By: zimmermann6

Differential Revision: https://reviews.llvm.org/D147676