[libc++] Implement the underlying mechanism for range adaptors

This patch implements the underlying mechanism for range adaptors. It
does so based on http://wg21.link/p2387, even though that paper hasn't
been adopted yet. In the future, if p2387 is adopted, it would suffice
to rename `__bind_back` to `std::bind_back` and `__range_adaptor_closure`
to `std::range_adaptor_closure` to implement that paper by the spec.

Differential Revision: https://reviews.llvm.org/D107098