[libc++] Extract __clamp_to_integral to its own header

In addition to being more consistent with our approach for helpers, this
solves an actual issue where <cmath> was using numeric_limits but never
including the <limits> header directly. In a normal setup, this is not
an issue because the <math.h> header included by <cmath> does include
<limits>. However, I did stumble upon some code where that didn't work,
most likely because they were placing their own <math.h> header in front
of ours. I didn't bother investigating further.

Differential Revision: https://reviews.llvm.org/D115282